To err is human. Society is suffering from an inability to acknowledge as much.

For individuals, errors are painful. The trick, then, is to err well: to recognize mistakes and learn from them. Worryingly, humanity may be getting worse at admitting its mistakes.

Few enjoy the feeling of being caught out in an error. But real trouble starts when the desire to avoid a punishment leads to a refusal to deal with contrary evidence. Economists often assume that people are sensible. When faced with a new fact, these people should update their view of the world to take better decisions in future. Yet years of economic research confirms that people frequently disregard information that conflicts with their view of the world.

Why should that be? Last year Roland Benabou, of Princeton, presented a framework for thinking about the problem. In many ways, beliefs are like other economic goods. People spend time and resources building them, and get value from them: some beliefs make owners feel good and show their public identity; other beliefs provide value by shaping behavior—for example, religious asceticism(禁欲主义) can help one avoid unhealthy habits.

Because beliefs, however, are not simply tools for making good decisions, but are treasured in their own right, new information that challenges them is unwelcome. People often engage in “motivated reasoning” to manage such challenges. Mr Benabou classifies this into three categories. “Strategic ignorance” is when a believer avoids information offering conflicting evidence. In “reality denial”， troubling evidence is rationalized(合理化)：real estate investors might make up fanciful theories for why prices should behave unusually, and supporters of a disgraced politician might claim the negative news to be fake. And lastly, in “self­signalling”， the believer creates his own tools to interpret the facts in the way he wants: an unhealthy person, for example, might decide that going for a daily run proves he is well.

“Motivated reasoning” is a cognitive bias(偏见). Not all the errors it leads to are  costly: praising the performance of one's supported football team despite contradictory evidence does little harm. But when biases are broadly shared—within financial world or political parties—danger arises. Motivated reasoning helps explain why viewpoints polarize (两极分化) even as information is more easily available than ever before.

Work by Mr Benabou suggests that groupthink is highest when people within groups face a shared fate: when choosing to break from a group is unlikely to spare an individual the costs of the group's errors or bring much individual benefit. The incentive(动力) to engage in motivated reasoning is high as a result. Even as the fact on a particular issue is obvious, parties can still become increasingly polarized. That, in turn, can make it harder still for a member of one party to get any benefit from breaking from a group. Indeed, the group has an incentive to silence independent voices.

Public statements of regret are risky in a rigidly polarized world. Admissions of error can not only annoy partners but also provide opportunities for opponents. But it is rarely in the interest of those in the right to pretend that they are never wrong.

52．According to the passage, beliefs are similar to economic goods in that ________．

A．both are entertaining and valuable                B．both can be shaped by religious faith

C．both can reflect who the owners are              D．both promote religious development

53．Which of the following is an example of “self­signalling”？

A．A fan speaks highly of his team although it has just lost the game.

B．A man covers his ears when stealing a bell, believing the bell won't ring.

C．Supporters of Trump believe the news about his affairs with a lady is fake.

D．Suspected AIDS carriers refuse to be tested though it can be done for free.

54．What can be inferred from Paragraphs 6 and 7?

A．Polarization causes individuals to break from the group.

B．Richer sources of information decrease motivated reasoning.

C．Individuals with independent voices are dismissed from the group.

D．Individuals in a group engage in motivated reasoning for their own interests.

55．Which of the following opinions might the author agree with?

A．Denying errors is unavoidable.

B．Failure to admit errors is harmful.

C．Humans are getting better at erring well.

D．Wise people ignore contrary worldviews.

请阅读下面文字及图片，并按照要求用英语写一篇150词左右的文章。

So Close, Yet So Far

Where am I? What am I doing? If you’re one of my 500 friends online, you’ll always be the first to know. My phone and laptop are never out of touching distance, so I’m constantly posting updates on social media—whether I’m having a coffee, on my way to school, watching TV… even when I’m in the shower. I have a never-ending flow of messages and updates from all the people I associate with online.

I live in a university dorm with a couple of great roommates. Yet the truth of the matter is: I feel lonely. A few days ago, I went out for a dinner get-together with some friends. My best friend left the table for 30 minutes because he had to take a call. Some spent the dinner bent over their phones, texting friends online but ignoring the one who sat right in front of them. And the extraordinary thing is no one thought this was rude; it’s just how life is nowadays.

（写作内容）

1. 用约 30 个单词概述上述文字所描述的现象；

2. 分析造成该现象的原因（两至三点）；

3. 请你给 Mark 提两到三条建议。

（写作要求）

1. 写作过程中不能直接引用原文语句；

2. 作文中不能出现真实姓名和学校名称；

3. 不必写标题。

（评分标准）

内容完整，语言规范，语篇连贯，词数适当。

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    The world is witnessing the worst refugee crisis(难民危机) since World War II. Tens of thousands of people are fleeing civil war and unrest(动荡) to find new homes in Europe — sometimes with sad consequences(后果).

On Aug 27, Austrian officials found the dead bodies of 71 Syrian migrants(移民) in a deserted truck near Austrian-Hungarian border, just as European leaders were holding a meeting in Vienna to figure out how to deal with the refugee crisis. On the same day, 200 migrants were found dead and 200 rescued as two boats packed with refugees sank off the coast of Libya, according to media reports.

The terms “migrant” and “refugee” are often used interchangeably. But there’s a big difference between them, says an article in the Atlantic magazine. Here is how the United Nations defines refugees:

“Refugees are persons fleeing armed conflict( 武 装 冲 突 ) or ill-treatment. Their situation is often so dangerous and intolerable that they cross national borders to search for safety in nearby countries. …These are people for whom denial(拒绝) of protection has possibly deadly consequences.”

Migrants, on the other hand, move mainly to improve their lives by finding work, or for education, family reunion or other reasons, said the agency.

Countries should offer refugees certain protections under their international treaty obligations(条约义务).

This is why some states hesitate to admit those people who are fleeing unrest in their home countries.

When talking about refugee and immigration problems, many media outlets use “illegal immigrant”. Critics say that it gives the impression that it’s the person that is illegal rather than their actions. The UN and the EU parliament have called for an end to the phrase, the BBC reported.

54．The differences between “refugee” and “migrant” are written with the purpose of _____.

A．defining the two words clearly

B．indicating why some states are not willing to admit refugees

C．showing that refugees are more than migrants

D．urging European countries to accept more refugees

55．According to the text   “refugee” differs from “migrant” because _____.

① they both cross national borders but with different purposes

② refugees are illegal while migrants are legal

③ refugees may face deadly consequences while migrants are relatively safe

④ refugees are treated badly while migrants are highly respected

A．①④                      B．①③                      C．②③④                  D．①③④

56．According to the text, what may be discussed in the next several paragraphs?

A．Explanations for “illegal immigrant”.

B．Examples about the refugee crisis in Europe.

C．Measures to offer refugee protections.

D．Causes of the refugee crisis in Europe.

阅读下面短文，在空白处填入 1 个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。

Pollution takes away all the beauty of the beaches of Hawaii. I hate to go to the beaches on  71． (sun) weekends and see rubbish bags lying on the sand, cigarette butts(烟头) 72． (bury) in the sand, and soda cans floating in the ocean.

One thing that really annoys me is that I see 73． (tour)who visit Hawaii leave their rubbish on the beaches. I was always taught after drinking soda to throw the can into the place 74． it should stay—the trash can. Another thing that annoys me is that some people walk right by rubbish 75． pretend that it’s not there.

The dogs or the fish are not to blame 76． it. It’s our fault and we must blame 77． (we). Everyone has to do his or her part 78． (solve) this problem. It can’t be difficult to do the job. There are a lot of things that we can do. First of all, we can help pick up rubbish along the beaches. We could also form organizations that help clean up our beaches. More 79． (important), we need to start now before the beaches 80． (damage) beyond repair.

  Steven Stein likes to follow garbage trucks. His strange habit makes sense when you consider that he’s an environmental scientist who studies how to reduce litter, including things that fall off garbage trucks as they drive down the road. What is even more interesting is that one of Stein’s jobs is defending an industry behind the plastic shopping bags.

Americans use more than 100 billion thin film plastic bags every year. So many end up in tree branches or along highways that a growing number of cities do not allow them at checkouts(收银台). The bags are prohibited in some 90 cities in California, including Los Angeles. Eyeing these headwinds, plastic-bag makers are hiring scientists like Stein to make the case that their products are not as bad for the planet as most people assume.

Among the bag makers’ argument: many cities with bans still allow shoppers to purchase paper bags, which are easily recycled but require more energy to produce and transport. And while plastic bags may be ugly to look at, they represent a small percentage of all garbage on the ground today.

The industry has also taken aim at the product that has appeared as its replacement: reusable shopping bags. The stronger a reusable bag is, the longer its life and the more plastic-bag use it cancels out. However, longer-lasting reusable bags often require more energy to make. One study found that a cotton bag must be used at least 131 times to be better for the planet than plastic.

Environmentalists don’t dispute(质疑) these points. They hope paper bags will be banned someday too and want shoppers to use the same reusable bags for years.

109．What has Steven Stein been hired to do?

A．Help increase grocery sales.

B．Recycle the waste material.

C．Stop things falling off trucks.

D．Argue for the use of plastic bags.

110．What does the word “headwinds” in paragraph 2 refer to?

A．Bans on plastic bags.

B．Effects of city development.

C．Headaches caused by garbage.

D．Plastic bags hung in trees.

111．What is a disadvantage of reusable bags according to plastic-bag makers?

A．They are quite expensive.

B．Replacing them can be difficult.

C．They are less strong than plastic bags.

D．Producing them requires more energy.

112．What is the best title for the text?

A．Plastic, Paper or Neither

B．Industry, Pollution and Environment

C．Recycle or Throw Away

D．Garbage Collection and Waste Control